Search result: Catalogue data in Autumn Semester 2017

Geomatic Engineering and Planning Bachelor Information
1. Semester
First Year Examinations
NumberTitleTypeECTSHoursLecturers
401-0241-00LAnalysis I Information O7 credits5V + 2UM. Akka Ginosar
AbstractMathematical tools for the engineer
Learning objectiveMathematics as a tool to solve engineering problems. Mathematical formulation of technical and scientific problems. Basic mathematical knowledge for engineers.
ContentComplex numbers.
Calculus for functions of one variable with applications.
Simple Mathematical models in engineering.
Lecture notesDie Vorlesung folgt weitgehend

Klaus Dürrschnabel, "Mathematik für Ingenieure - Eine Einführung mit Anwendungs- und Alltagsbeispielen", Springer; online verfügbar unter:
http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-8348-2559-9/page/1
LiteratureNeben Klaus Dürrschnabel, "Mathematik für Ingenieure - Eine Einführung mit Anwendungs- und Alltagsbeispielen", Springer sind auch die folgenden Bücher/Skripte empfehlenswert und decken den zu behandelnden Stoff ab:

Tilo Arens et al., "Mathematik", Springer; online verfügbar unter:
http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-44919-2/page/1

Meike Akveld, "Analysis 1", vdf;
http://vdf.ch/index.php?route=product/product&product_id=1706

Urs Stammbach, "Analysis I/II" (erhältlich im ETH Store);
https://people.math.ethz.ch/~stammb/analysisskript.html
401-0141-00LLinear AlgebraO5 credits3V + 1UM. Auer
AbstractIntroduction to Linear Algebra
Learning objectiveTo acquire basic knowledge of Linear Algebra and Numerical Methods. Enhanced capability for abstract and algorithmic thinking based on mathematical concepts and models. Ability to select appropriate numerical linear algebra methods, to apply them properly and to implement them efficiently in MATLAB.
Content1 Introduction, calculations using MATLAB
2 Linear systems I
3 Linear systems II
4 Scalar- & vektorproduct
5 Basics of matrix algebra
6 Linear maps
7 Orthogonal maps
8 Trace & determinant
9 General vectorspaces
10 Metric & scalarproducts
11 Basis, basistransform & similar matrices
12 Eigenvalues & eigenvectors
13 Spectral theorem & diagonalisation
14 Repetition
Lecture notesMore information on: http://www.sam.math.ethz.ch/~grsam/HS17/LABAUG/index.html
LiteratureK. Nipp, D. Stoffer, Lineare Algebra, VdF Hochschulverlag ETH

G. Strang, Lineare Algebra, Springer
252-0845-00LComputer Science I Information O5 credits2V + 2UH. Lehner, F. Friedrich Wicker
AbstractThe course covers the basic concepts of computer programming.
Learning objectiveBasic understanding of programming concepts. Students will be able to write and read simple programs and to modify existing programs.
ContentVariablen, Typen, Kontrollanweisungen, Prozeduren und Funktionen, Scoping, Rekursion, dynamische Programmierung, vektorisierte Programmierung, Effizienz.
Als Lernsprachen werden Java und Matlab verwendet.
LiteratureSprechen Sie Java?
Hanspeter Mössenböck
dpunkt.verlag
101-0031-01LSystems EngineeringO4 credits3GB. T. Adey, C. Richmond
AbstractAn introduction to system development, analysis and optimization, and decision making, with focus on linear programming, networks, formal decision methods and economic analysis.
Learning objective- to gain compentency in methods used to plan and analyse systems
- to gain the ability to formulate, analyse and solve complex problems
- to gain compentency in the methods used for the evaluation of multiple solutions
Content- Introduction
- System development
- System analysis
- Networks
- Decision theory
- Economic analysis
- Cost-benefit analysis
Lecture notesScript and transparencies as well as additional material via Moodle.
The transparencies will be provided via Moodle two days before the respective class.
101-0031-02LBusiness Administration Information
Remark: Students BSc Civil Engineering (StR2014) are not allowed to assign to 101-0031-02, but have to assign 101-0031-04 in spring semester (2. Sem).
O2 credits2VJ.‑P. Chardonnens
AbstractIntroduction to business administration
Principles of accounting and financial management
Financial planning and capital budgeting of projects
Costing systems by corporations
Learning objectivePrepare and analyze the financial statements of organizations
Establish budget and determine profitability of investment
Understand the major costing systems
Perform some product calculations
ContentOverview in business administration

Financial Accounting
- Balance sheet, income statement
- Accounts, double-entry bookkeeping
- Year-end closing and financial statements

Financial Management
- Financial statement analysis
- Financial planning
- Investment decisions

Management Accounting
- Full costing and marginal costing
- Product costing
- Management decisions
651-0032-00LGeology and PetrographyO4 credits2V + 1UC. A. Heinrich, S. Löw, K. Rauchenstein
AbstractThis course gives an overview of the basic concepts of geology and petrography and shows some links to the application of these concepts. The course consists of weekly lectures and bi-weekly exercises in groups.
Learning objectiveThis course gives an overview of the basic concepts of geology and petrography and shows some links to the application of these concepts.
ContentGeologie der Erde, Mineralien - Baustoffe der Gesteine, Gesteine und ihr Kreislauf, Magmatische Gesteine, Vulkane und ihre Gesteine, Verwitterung und Erosion, Sedimentgesteine, Metamorphe Gesteine, Historische Geologie, Strukturgeologie und Gesteinsverformung, Bergstürze und Rutschungen, Grundwasser, Flüsse, Wind und Gletscher, Prozesse im Erdinnern, Erdbeben und Rohstoffe. Kurze Einführung in die Geologie der Schweiz.

Übungen zum Gesteinsbestimmen und Lesen von geologischen, tektonischen und geotechnischen Karten, einfache Konstruktionen.
Lecture notesWeekly handouts of PPT slides via MyStudies
LiteratureThe course is based on Press & Siever book Dynamic Earth by Grotzinger et al., available to ETH students via https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-662-48342-8
701-0243-01LBiology III: Essentials of EcologyO3 credits2VC. Buser Moser
AbstractThis lecture presents an introduction to ecology. It includes basic ecological concepts and the most important levels of complexity in ecological research. Ecological concepts are exemplified by using aquatic and terrestrial systems; corresponding methodological approaches are demonstrated. In a more applied part of the lecture threats to biodiversity and the appropriate management are discussed.
Learning objectiveThe objective of this lecture is to teach basic ecological concepts and the different levels of complexity in ecological research: the individual, the population, the community and the ecosystem level.
The students should learn ecological concepts at these different levels in the context of concrete examples from terrestrial and aquatic ecology. Corresponding methods for studying the systems will be presented.
A further aim of the lecture is that students achieve an understanding of biodiversity, why it is threatened and how it can be managed.
Content- Übersicht der aquatischen und terrestrischen Lebensräume mit ihren Bewohnern
- Einfluss von Umweltfaktoren (Temperatur, Strahlung, Wasser, Nährstoffe etc.) auf Organismen; Anpassung an bestimmte Umweltbedingungen
- Populationsdynamik: Ursachen, Beschreibung, Vorhersage und Regulation
- Interaktionen zwischen Arten (Konkurrenz, Koexistenz, Prädation, Parasitismus, Nahrungsnetze)
- Lebensgemeinschaften: Struktur, Stabilität, Sukzession
- Ökosysteme: Kompartimente, Stoff- und Energieflusse
- Biodiversität: Variation, Ursachen, Gefährdung und Erhaltung
- Aktuelle Naturschutzprobleme und -massnahmen
- Evolutionäre Ökologie: Methodik, Spezialisierung, Koevolution
Lecture notesUnterlagen, Vorlesungsfolien und relevante Literatur sind in der Lehrdokumentenablage abrufbar. Die Unterlagen für die nächste Vorlesung stehen jeweils spätestens am Freitagmorgen zur Verfügung.
LiteratureGenerelle Ökologie:
Townsend, Harper, Begon 2009. Ökologie. Springer, ca. Fr. 70.-

Aquatische Ökologie:
Lampert & Sommer 1999. Limnoökologie. Thieme, 2. Aufl., ca. Fr. 55.-;
Bohle 1995. Limnische Systeme. Springer, ca. Fr. 50.-

Naturschutzbiologie:
Baur B. et al. 2004. Biodiversität in der Schweiz. Haupt, Bern, 237 S.
Primack R.B. 2004. A primer of conservation biology. 3rd ed. Sinauer, Mass. USA, 320 pp.
3. Semester
Compulsory Courses
Examination Block 1
NumberTitleTypeECTSHoursLecturers
402-0023-01LPhysicsO7 credits5V + 2US. Johnson
AbstractThis course will cover the basic topics in Physics and will show/display/explain with a variety of experiments the most important physical effects. The course will address classical as well as modern physics, and the interplay between basic research and applications.
Learning objectiveDer Physikunterricht will die Grundgesetze der Physik verständlich machen, den Zusammenhang zwischen Grundlagenforschung und Anwendungen aufzeigen, das selbständige Denken im naturwissenschaftlich-technischen Bereich fördern und darüber hinaus etwas von der Faszination der klassischen und modernen Physik vermitteln. Dieses Ziel soll durch Vorlesungen mit Demonstrationsexperimenten und Übungen erreicht werden.
ContentElektromagnetismus: Elektrostatik und Magnetostatik, Strom, Spannung und Widerstand, Maxwell-Gleichungen, elektromagnetische Wellen, elektromagnetische Induktion, elektromagnetische Eigenschaften der Materie.
Thermodynamik: Temperatur und Wärme, Zustandsgleichungen, erster und zweiter Hauptsatz der Wärmelehre, Entropie, Transportvorgänge.
Quantenphysik und Atomphysik.
Schwingungen und Wellen.
Grundlagen der speziellen Relativitätstheorie.
Lecture notesManuskript und Übungsblätter
LiteratureHans J. Paus, Physik in Experimenten und Beispielen, Carl Hanser Verlag München Wien (als unterrichtsbegleitendes und ergänzendes Lehrbuch)
103-0253-00LGeoprocessing and Parameter EstimationO5 credits4GA. Geiger, M. Meindl
AbstractThis course provides basic knowledge on parameter estimation and data processing. The necessary mathematical and statistical methods are developed and are applied to actual examples in geomatics.
Learning objectiveThe students are capable of analysing measurements with with appropriate methods. They can optimally extract model parameters from real measurements and are able to analyse and to retrieve additional information from time series. They understand the underlying algorithms of different geodetic analysis tools and processing methods.
ContentMathematical modeling of engineering problems, general adjustment, minimization principles, propagation of variances, uncertainty of measurements, dealing with heterogeneous measurement types, linear/non linear regression, autocorrelation and colocation
Lecture notesParameterestimation and Adjustment
Philippe Limpach
General Adjustment and Collocation
Alain Geiger
Prerequisites / NoticeLinear Algebra, Statistics
103-0214-00LCartography IO5 credits4GL. Hurni
AbstractBasic knowhow about communication with spatial information by using plans and maps, about the most important design rules and production methods for map graphics.
Learning objectiveAcquire basic knowhow about communication with spatial information by using plans and maps, about the most important design rules and production methods for map graphics. Ability to assess existing products with respect to their content-related and design quality. Ability to design proper plans and well designed legends for basic maps.
ContentDefinitions "map" and "cartography", map types, current tasks and situation of cartography, map history, spatial refernce systems, map projections, map conception and workflow planning, map design, analog and digital map production technology, prepress technology, printing technology, topographic maps, map critics.
Lecture notesWill be distributed module by module
Literature- Grünreich, Dietmar; Hake, Günter und Liqiu Meng (2002): Kartographie, 8. Auflage, Verlag W. de Gruyter, Berlin
- Mäder, Charles (2000): Kartographie für Geographen, Geographica Bernensia, Geographisches Institut der Universität Bern, Nr. U22. OUT OF PRINT!
- Robinson, Arthur et al. (1995): Elements of Cartography, 6th edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, ISBN 0-471-55579-7
- Wilhelmy, Herbert (2002): Kartographie in Stichworten, 7. Auflage, Bornträger, ISBN 3-443-03112-9
- Gurtner, Martin (2010): Karten lesen, Handbuch zu den Landeskarten. 2. Aufl., SAC-Verlag, ISBN 978-3-85902-289-8
Prerequisites / NoticeFurther information at http://www.karto.ethz.ch/studium/lehrangebot.html
103-0313-00LPlanning I Information O5 credits4GG. Nussbaumer, P. Rütsche
AbstractThe lecture introduces into the main-features of spatial planning. Attended will be the subjects planning as a national responsibility, instruments of spatial planning, techniques for problem solving in spatial planning and the Swiss concept for national planning.
Learning objectiveDie Studierenden kennen die Grundzüge der Raumplanung, ihre wichtigen Instrumente und Problemlösungsverfahren. Sie können das vermittelte theoretische Wissen direkt an konkreten, praxisorientierten Übungsaufgaben umsetzen.
ContentEinleitung - Was ist Raumplanung (Begriffe)
Die Raumplanung als staatliche Aufgabe - Raumordnungspolitik
Instrumente der Raumplanung (Richtplanung, Nutzungsplanung)
Problemlösungsverfahren in der Raumplanung - systemtechnisches Vorgehen
Das schweizerische Raumordnungskonzept

Der Schwerpunkt der Vorlesung liegt auf der Erläuterung der Raumplanung als Problemlösungsverfahren. Das dabei vermittelte theoretische Wissen wird direkt an einer konkreten, praxisorientierten Übungsaufgabe umgesetzt.
Lecture notesProf. Dr. W.A. Schmid et al. (2006, Stand 2017): Raumplanung GZ - Eine Einführung für Ingenieurstudierende. IRL-PLUS, ETHZ

- Handouts of the lectures
- Exercises

Download: http://www.plus.ethz.ch/de/studium/vorlesungen/bsc/planning_1.html
Examination Block 2
NumberTitleTypeECTSHoursLecturers
103-0115-00LGeodetic Metrology IIO5 credits4GA. Wieser, G. Boffi
AbstractAdvanced topics in geodetic metrology with focus on instrumental and methodic aspects for applications with higher accuracy demands.
Learning objectiveThe students acquire enhanced knowledge regarding the operating mode, the application and the limitations of modern geodetic standard instruments. They will be able to properly select, test and apply these instruments for geodetic tasks with higher accuracy requirements. They will get acquainted with the typical workflow from the preparation of the field works to the digital or plotted plan. Finally, the students will be introduced to specific geodetic tasks related to construction and civil engineering.
Content- The geomatics workflow
- Propagation of light in the atmosphere
- The modern total station
- Terrestrial Laserscanning
- Digital levels
- Field tests
- Transformations and Centering
- Trigonometric leveling
- Precision leveling
- Route planing and transition curves
Lecture notesThe slides and documents for enhanced study and further reading will be provided online.
LiteratureWitte B, Sparla P (2015) Vermessungskunde und Grundlagen der Statistik für das Bauwesen. 8. Aufl., Wichmann Verlag.
103-0233-01LGIS IO3 credits2GM. Raubal
AbstractFundamentals of geoinformation technologies: spatial data modeling, metrics & topology, vector and raster data, thematic data, spatial queries and analysis, spatial databases; group project with GIS software
Learning objectiveKnowing the fundamentals of geoinformation technologies for the realization, application and operation of geographic information systems in engineering projects.
ContentEinführung GIS & GIScience
Konzeptionelles Modell & Datenschema
Vektorgeometrie & Topologie
Rastergeometrie und -algebra
Thematische Daten
Räumliche Abfragen & Analysen
Geodatenbanken
Lecture notesVorlesungspräsentationen werden digital zur Verfügung gestellt.
LiteratureBartelme, N. (2005). Geoinformatik - Modelle, Strukturen, Funktionen (4. Auflage). Berlin: Springer.
Bill, R. (2016). Grundlagen der Geo-Informationssysteme (6. Auflage): Wichmann.
Worboys, M., & Duckham, M. (2004). GIS - A Computing Perspective (2nd Edition). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Examination Block 3
In place of the German course 851-0703-03L Introduction to Law for Civil Engineering students can take the French course 851-0709-00L Droit civil.
NumberTitleTypeECTSHoursLecturers
851-0703-03LIntroduction to Law for Civil Engineering Information Restricted registration - show details
Only for Civil Engineering BSc, Geomatic Engineering and Planning BSc, Environmental Engineering BSc and Spatial Development and Infrastructure Systems MSc

Students who have attended or will attend the lecture "Introduction to Law for Architecture " (851-0703-01L) cannot register for this course unit.
W2 credits2VG. Hertig, T. Ender, E. Rüegg
AbstractThis class introduces students to basic features of the legal system. Questions of constitutional and administrative law, contract law, tort law, corporate law, as well as litigation are covered.
Learning objectiveIntroduction to fundamental questions of public and private law which serves as a foundation for more advanced law classes.
Content1. Public Law
Fundamental rights, administrative decisions, procedural law, basics of police, environmental and zoning law.

2. Private law
SIA (Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects) Design Engineering Services Contract, SIA-Norm 118 (SIA General Terms and Conditions for Construction Services) including unforseen ground conditions, liability of designers/civil engineers, construction insurance, property law for civil engineers, sale of land, contaminated sites, public procurement.
Lecture notesThere are 'Lecture Notes' (in German) for this course.
851-0709-00LIntroduction to Civil LawW2 credits2VH. Peter
AbstractThe course Private Law focuses on the Swiss Code of Obligations (contracts, torts) and on Property Law (ownership, mortgage and easements). In addition, the course will provide a short overview of Civil Procedure and Enforcement.
Learning objectiveEnseignement des principes du droit, en particulier du droit privé. Introduction au droit.
ContentLe cours de droit civil porte notamment sur le droit des obligations (droit des contrats et responsabilité civile) et sur les droits réels (propriété, gages et servitudes). De plus, il est donné un bref aperçu du droit de la procédure et de l'exécution forcée.
LiteratureEditions officielles récentes des lois fédérales, en langue française (Code civil et Code des obligations) ou italienne (Codice civile e Codice delle obbligazioni), disponibles auprès de la plupart des librairies.

Sont indispensables:
- le Code civil et le Code des obligations;
Sont conseillés:
- Nef, Urs Ch.: Le droit des obligations à l'usage des ingénieurs et des architectes, trad. Bovay, J., éd. Payot, Lausanne
- Scyboz, G. et. Gilliéron, P.-R, éd.: Edition annotée du Code civil et du Code des obligations, Payot, Lausanne, et Helbing & Lichtenhahn,
- Boillod, J.-P.: Manuel de droit, éd Slatkine, Genève
- Biasio, G./Foglia, A.: Introduzione ai codici di diritto privato svizzero, ed. Giappichelli, Torino
Prerequisites / NoticeRemarques
- Le cours de droit civil et le cours de droit public (2e sem.) sont l'équivalent des cours "Recht I" et "Recht II" en langue allemande et des exercices y relatifs.
- Les examens peuvent se faire en français ou en italien.
- Examen au 1er propédeutique; convient pour travail de semestre.
- Con riassunti in italiano. E possibile sostenere l'esame in italiano.
5. Semester
Compulsory Courses
Examination Block 4
NumberTitleTypeECTSHoursLecturers
103-0126-00LGeodetic Reference SystemsO3 credits2GM. Meindl
AbstractFundamentals and theory of geodetic reference systems and frames. Introduction to current international systems as well as to systems for the Swiss national geodetic survey.
Learning objectiveProvision of fundamental knowledge and theory to get familiar with the applications of geodetic reference systems. Special emphasis will be placed on international global systems as well as on the systems of the Swiss national geodetic survey.
ContentVarious coordinate systems and transformations;
reference systems and frames (inertial, Earth-fixed, topocentric) and associated transformations between the systems;
introduction to Earth rotation theory;
time systems;
Swiss national geodetic survey
Lecture notesScript will be provided electronically as pdf file.
Prerequisites / NoticeIf possible, a field trip to the geodetic fundamental station Zimmerwald (Bern) will be offered.
103-0184-00LHigher GeodesyO5 credits4GM. Rothacher
AbstractModern methods of Higher Geodesy. Basics of Shape of the Earth: Geoid determination and deflection of the vertical. Introduction into the most important topics: Satellite Geodesy and Navigation; Physical Geodesy and gravity field of the Earth; Astronomical Geodesy and Positioning; Mathematical Geodesy and basics of Geodynamics. Reference systems and applications in National and Global Geomatics.
Learning objectiveOverview over the entire spectrum of Higher Geodesy
ContentActual methods of Higher Geodesy. Basics of Shape of the Earth: Geoid determination and deflection of the vertical. Introduction into the most important topics: Satellite Geodesy (GPS) and Navigation; Physical Geodesy and gravity field of the Earth; Astronomical Geodesy and Positioning; Mathematical Geodesy and basics of Geodynamics. Reference systems and applications in National and Global Geomatics.
Lecture notesKahle, H.-G.: Einführung in die Höhere Geodäsie, 4. erweiterte Auflage, 2008.
103-0435-01LLand Management Information O5 credits4GG. Nussbaumer, F. Frei, M. Huhmann, R. Michelon
AbstractThe lecture deals with three main topics:
First part: Spatial planning on the commune level with focus on the special land use management
Second part: land re-allocation as an instrument of spatial planning; specific explanations for land re-allocations in rural regions and in construction zones.
Third part: Agricultural planning as a participatory modular process
Learning objectiveAcquiring knowledge in spatial planning and land re-allocation as an interactive process.
ContentPART 1: Spatial Planning and Special Land Use Management
- overview about spatial planning on the commune level
- workflows and planning methods on the commune level
- comprehension of the public
- acquiring knowledge about the special land use management

PART 2: Methods of Land Re-Allocation
- intentions and principles of land re-allocation
- implementation of the land re-allocation
- land re-allocation in construction zones
- melioration

PART 3: Agricultural Planning
- AP as a participatory process to increase acceptance
- theoretical and practical learning of the AP-modules
Lecture notesLecture notes and slides (in German) can be downloaded from the PLUS homepage.

Download: http://www.plus.ethz.ch/de/studium/vorlesungen/bsc/land_management.html
LiteratureReferences in the lecture notes
101-0515-00LProject ManagementO2 credits2GC. G. C. Marxt
AbstractThe course gives a detailed introduction on various aspects of professional project management out of theory and practice. Established concepts and methods for project organization, planning, execution and evaluation are introduced and major challenges discussed. The course includes an introduction on specialized project management software as well as agile project management concepts.
Learning objectiveProjects are not only the base of work in modern enterprises but also the primary type of cooperation with customers. Students of ETH will often work in or manage projects in the course of their career. Good project management knowledge is not only a guarantee for individual, but also for company wide success.

The goal of this course is to give a detailed introduction into project management. The students should learn to plan and execute a project.
ContentProject planning (aims, appointments, capacities, efforts and costs), project organization, scheduling and risk analysis, project execution, supervision and control, project evaluation, termination and documentation, conflict management, multinational project management, IT support as well as agile project management methods such as SCRUM.
Lecture notesNo.
The lecture slides and other additional material will be available for download from Moodle a week before each class.
101-0415-01LRailway Infrastructures (Transportation II)O3 credits2GU. A. Weidmann
AbstractFundamentals of railroad technology and interactions between track and vehicles, network development and infrastructure planning, planning of rail infrastructure, planning and design of railway stations, construction and dimensioning of tracks, approval and beginning service on complex infrastructure facilities, special issues of maintenance.
Learning objectiveTeaches the basic principles of public transport network and topology design, geometrical design, dimensioning and construction as well as the maintenance of rail infrastructures. Teaches students to recognize the interactions between the infrastructure design and the production processes. Provides the background for Masters degree study.
Content(1) Fundamentals: Infrastructures of public transport systems; interaction between track and vehicles; passengers and goods as infrastructure users; management and financing of networks; railway standards and normes. (2) Infrastructure planning: Planning processes and decision levels in network development and infrastructure planning, planning of railway tracks and rail topologies; planning of the passenger parts of stations. (3) Infrastructure design: Fundamentals of the layout of a line; track geometry; switchs and crossings; design of station platforms. (4) Construction of railway infrastructures: Assembly and evolution of the railway track; elements of the railway track; dimensioning of the track; track stability. (5) Approval and beginning service on complex infrastructure facilities: Definitions and limitations; fundamentals of the legal situation; test and approval processes; processes of putting railway systems into operation. (6) Maintenance of railway infrastructures: Fundamentals of infrastructure maintenance; kinds of depreviations; supervision methods; steps of infrastructure maintenance; estimation of maintenance need; methods to minimize maintenance costs.
Lecture notesCourse notes will be provided in German. Slides are made available some days before each lecture.
LiteratureReferences to technical literature will be included in the course script. An additional list of literature will be given during the course.
Prerequisites / NoticeNo remarks.
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